Strategies
to Help Students Improve as Readers
Students often feel that reading is a passive activity. How can we get them to become more active
readers?
·
Explain how our own reading process varies with material
& purpose.
·
Show our own note-taking & responses to a passage.
·
Demonstrate how we extract key words in texts & use
dictionaries.
·
Write “what it says” (topic sentence) & “what it does”
statements (purpose/function) for paragraphs.
·
Find & share supplemental materials related to class
texts—use the Web or newspapers & magazines.
·
Play the “believing & doubting” game with a text (what’s
fact, what’s opinion?)
·
Create reading guides
(key questions to survey beforehand).
·
Show how we diagram, draw, or outline ideas &
relationships when we read.
·
Model how we read and “say back” what we read in our own
language.
·
Read the 1st sentence of each paragraph on a page &
predict what’s to come.
Material adapted from John Bean, Engaging Ideas, Jossey-Bass.
Look over excerpts below. Let’s list at least 3-4 ways that reading in
our own subject area differs from other areas.
Next, briefly “translate” the text
you chose into your own words, as if you were explaining it to a friend. What
differences do you see between your revision and the original text?
Reflect: what do our students experience?
American History & Social Studies. Under the electoral college system
established by the United States Constitution, the system under which we still
operate, the president and vice president are not chosen by popular vote. Instead, the popular vote is used to choose
electors. These electors in turn cast
their votes to elect directly the president and vice president. This peculiar system was designed to ensure
that an unqualified candidate, though favored by a majority of the people,
would never reach office. It was
contemplated that the electors, who would presumably be better educated than
the average voter, would ignore the popular vote and choose a better
candidate. When a voter casts a ballot
in a presidential election, she or he is not actually voting for a
candidate. Instead, the vote is cast
for a slate of electors who have pledged themselves to cast their electoral
votes for a certain candidate. The
slate that gets the most votes gets to cast that state’s electoral votes. This “winner take all” system can produce
some interesting results:
In 1888, Cleveland received nearly
100,000 more votes than Harrison, but the electoral college made Harrison
president by a vote of 233 to 168. In
1980, John Anderson received nearly six million votes, but that fact was not
reflected in the electoral college vote.
Critics of the system also point
out that electors, while “pledged” to particular candidates, are not legally
bound to vote for those candidates.
Occasionally, electors ignore their pledges, but this has not occurred
very often. Also, say critics, the
system discourages the growth of new parties because it is necessary to poll a
large number of votes to get any electoral votes.
Finally, analysts say that the
system encourages candidates to concentrate on more populous states with their
greater electoral votes and to ignore smaller and less popular states.
Algebra.
Many algebraic expressions contain two or more terms. For instance, 2x – 7 has two terms, and 3x –
9y + 7z has three terms. It is best to write algebraic expressions in
the simplest form possible. To simplify
an algebraic expression, combine like terms and remove all symbols of grouping
such as parentheses and brackets. Like
terms are terms that contain the same variables to the same power.
Examples of like terms: 4x 7x 12x; 2xy xy
17xy; 9xⁿ 4xⁿ
xⁿ
Examples of unlike terms: 3x 4y -; 2 2xy; 3x 4y
3xⁿ; 2x –5
We can combine like terms to simplify an expression.
Example 1:
3x + 5x = 8x (Just add the coefficients—the numbers.)
Example 2:
7yⁿ - 5yⁿ = 2yⁿ (You can also subtract coefficients.)
Example 3: 2x – 3y – 5y + 2 4x – 6 = 6x –
8y – 4
Combine x terms. Combine
y terms.
2x + 4x = 6X -3y
– 5y = -8y
Combine numbers.
-6 + 2 = -4
Notice that in Example 3, three of
the terms had answers with a minus sign.
These are called negative numbers. If the signs of numbers are the same ( + or - ), combine the
numbers and just attach the sign ( +6 and +3 = +9; -6 + 2 = 4).
Sometimes
algebraic expressions are grouped together.
Grouping symbols can be parentheses or brackets. These symbols draw your attention first when
you simplify an expression.
Example 1: 3(2x – 4)
Multiply 3 by 2x and 3 by (-4).
3(2x – 4) + 3(2x) – 3(4) = 6x – 12
If a plus sign or no sign is in front
of parentheses, the terms do not change when you remove the parentheses.
Example 2:
6x + (2x – 7) = 6x + 2x – 7 = 8X – 7
A minus
sign in front of a set of parentheses changes the sign inside to the opposite
sign. With a minus and a number, you change
the signs, multiply the numbers, and combine the terms.
Example 3:
3x – 2(6x – 4) = 3x – 12x + 8 =
-9x + 8
Art.
We can take photographs to “freeze moments” in our
memories. We do not consider ourselves
artists, for we use the camera to capture the memory for us. When we see a painting which freezes a
moment and gives meaning to it, we know art.
Andrew
Wyeth, one of the most popular American artists of our time, has the ability to
capture moments on canvas. His temperas
and watercolors present natural colors—earth tones of browns, grays, and muted
shades of pink. He uses white as no
other artist has.
Wyeth’s
subjects and landscapes are rural. His
compositions reflect thoughtful simplicity, as if he has created
“impressionistic” photographs. Not only
is a landscape captured but a subject against a horizon, old farmhouses,
bruised buckets, torn lace curtains, and window frames.
To learn
about Wyeth is to see one of his paintings—Christina’s World (1948)—his
most well known work. Christina, an
actual friend of his, is in a crawling position with her back to the
observer. She leans into, perhaps
yearning for, a farmhouse on the horizon.
Centered on the painting and on the horizon is an out-shed, a barn,
which is to the left of the house.
The three
focal points—the girl, the barn, and the farmhouse—are “balanced” on a grassy,
barren field. The “plainness” is
characteristic of Wyeth. Each time we
look at the painting, we are drawn to Christina, the “center” of the painting
and of her world.
Wyeth is
often categorized as an American realist, but to label artists is to limit our
views of their accomplishments. The
simplicity of Wyeth’s work discourages complexity of thought, and we are left
to thoroughly enjoy the moment he creates for us.
XX x X*Y
unaffected female affected
male
Note that the female has to be XX
and cannot be X*X or X*X*. Why? Realize
that X*X or X*X* would signify an affected female—the X* is dominant! Hence, an unaffected female could not
possess this gene. In addition, if it
is assumed that the carrier state represents an individual who possesses the
gene in question but is not affected, there can be no carriers for this
gene. That is, each offspring who
possesses the X* gene will be affected.
Imagine how a Punnett square would be arranged for the cross that
occurs.
So,
100% of the female offspring will inherit the X* chromosome. However, the X chromosome of the male
offspring will be one of the unaffected X chromosomes from the unaffected
female parent. Hence, none of the males
will be affected.
Chemistry. When compounds are made, a bond is formed between two
or more elements. A bond is a
force that holds together two atoms, two ions, two molecules, or a combination
of these. Bonding may result from
either the transfer or the sharing of electrons between atoms.
When electrons are transferred from one atom to another,
an ionic bond is formed. For
example, an ionic bond is formed when an electron from a sodium atom is
transferred to the outermost shell of a chlorine atom. The result is the common compound table
salt. In this example, both sodium and
chlorine are electrically neutral; however, when the sodium atom loses its
electron, it becomes positively charged.
Opposite charges attract, forming a bond. Ionic compounds such as salt typically have high melting and
boiling points, are flammable, conduct electricity when dissolved in water, and
exist as solids at room temperatures.
When two or more different atoms of elements share
electrons to form a molecule, a covalent bond is formed. For example, two atoms of hydrogen are
bonded to one atom of oxygen to form the compound water.
In covalent bonding, the outermost shell of the element
with the greatest number of electrons is filled to capacity at eight
electrons. Once the combining element
achieves eight electrons in its outermost ring, it cannot combine with another
element. Covalent compounds such as
water typically have low melting points, are nonflammable, have poor conductivity,
and exist as gases and liquids.
Earth Science. Meteorologists study Earth’s atmosphere to understand and predict the weather. The atmosphere is the invisible layer
of air that envelops the Earth.
Scientists believe that is it primarily because of our atmosphere that
life exists on Earth and not on neighboring planets such as Mars and
Venus. The atmosphere is not one
distinct air mass that surrounds Earth; it is composed of several layers of air
that begin at specific altitude ranges.
Meteorologists have identified four layers of Earth’s
atmosphere. In ascending order (from
lowest to highest) they are the troposphere, stratosphere, ionosphere, and
exosphere. The troposphere lies
closest to Earth. It extends upward
about seven to ten miles. Earth’s
weather occurs in this layer of the atmosphere, and it contains almost all of
the clouds. The tropopause is
the boundary where the troposphere ends and the stratosphere begins. The stratosphere begins somewhere
between seven and ten miles and extends upward about thirty miles. It is a uniform
layer of air with little vertical air movement. Airplane travel in this layer is generally smooth and visibility
always clear.
Above the stratosphere, the ionosphere extends
upward about 300 miles. The air in the
ionosphere is extremely thin, and air particles are electrified. Through the ionosphere, radio waves are
transmitted great distances around Earth.
The exosphere is the highest layer of the atmosphere. It is characterized by extreme heat during
the day when the Sun’s direct rays reach it and extreme cold at night when it
is shielded from the Sun’s direct rays.
Economics. Economic growth is a major goal of an economic
system. In a growing economy, there is
an increasing capacity to produce more goods and services. During periods of great economic growth,
consumers are increasingly able to buy these goods and services. An economy’s growth should occur at a steady
and controllable pace.
This process may be likened to blowing up a balloon. If a balloon is inflated too quickly, it may
burst; if inflated too slowly, it may never reach its full capacity. Similarly, the American economy must grow
evenly, or problems will occur. A business
cycle has periods of inflation and recession that can be plotted along the
ideal upward trend of economic growth.
When too much money and credit are available and too few
goods are available to satisfy demand, the dollar loses its value and the
prices of goods increase. The country
begins a period of inflation.
For consumers to be able to keep pace with the rise in
the cost of goods, their wages must increase.
For producers to pay increased wages, they must produce more goods and
charge higher prices for them. This
chainlike pattern in which wage increases feed on price increases is called an inflationary
spiral. For inflation to fall,
demand must be decreased and credit restricted. However, one result of curbing high inflation is often an
economic recession.
When too little money and credit are available, and more
goods are available than necessary to satisfy demand, the dollar gains value
and the prices of goods decrease.
Under these circumstances, the economy enters a period of
deflation. Because goods remain unsold,
producers’ profits fall. Falling
profits lead to layoffs. Unless the
situation is corrected, a recession occurs; if the recession is prolonged, a
depression can result. The United
States experienced this condition during the Great Depression of the 1930s.
Economic indicators are statistics that show
economic experts how the economy is performing. Among the more commonly used economic statistics are stock market
trading, unemployment percentages, number of housing starts, and the gross
national product (GNP).
One of the most important measurements of economic
growth, the GNP represents the total value of all goods and services
produced in one year. Economists
measure GNP in current dollars and again in constant dollars. Current dollars indicate the actual
dollar value of goods. Constant
dollars take into account the change in prices over the years because of
inflation. In measuring the nation’s
GNP, economists measure current dollars against constant dollars during a given
year. In recent years, economists have
use 1987 as the base year with which to compare current GNP dollars.
English Literature. Tips on
reading fiction:
·
What is the setting?
·
What is the atmosphere?
·
Who are the characters
and how are they named and described?
·
What is the plot?
·
What is the conflict?
·
From whose point of
view is the story told?
·
What are clues to the
theme?
·
What is the author’s
style like?
·
What is the author’s
tone?
Below
is a brief review of a novel which tells a little about the author and her
career, major events in the plot of the book, and the reviewer’s opinion of the
book:
History Repeats Itself
By Anne Whitehouse
The
Last Room, the Jamaican writer Elean
Thomas’s first novel, is about two generations of mothers and daughters. Valerie Barton, nicknamed Putus (“meaning
sweet and special”), is the only child and bright hope of her parents. As her mother says, “You wi be the one who
bruk dem slavery chain fi-ever.” But
Putus’s father dies, her mother remarries, and the girl is sent away. Befriended by an older man, she becomes
pregnant. Young and naïve, she does not realize at first that her condition
means the death of her hopes. History
repeats itself when Putus leaves her own daughter, Icylane, behind in Jamaica
to join a man in England whom she will marry.
Eighteen years pass. The story
continues through Icy, now a civil servant, who goes to England to seek out the
mother who abandoned her and who is said to be ill. Throughout the novel, Ms. Thomas makes generous use of dialect,
and a glossary of Jamaican terms is provided.
Her storytelling only falters with the somewhat disconcerting break
between the stories of Putus and Icy; one wants to follow Putus’s life as a
young woman instead of returning to her decades later, when she has only the
remnants of her anger and pride. Nevertheless,
The Last Room is an affecting novel about hope and disillusionment,
expectation and failure.
Geometry. Perimeter is the distance around a
figure. Measuring for a fence around a
yard or putting a baseboard around a room are some uses of perimeter. Tip: Keep
in mind that the perimeter of a figure is the distance all the way around a
figure, so you can also add all the sides of a figure.
The perimeter of a square is P = 4s where P is the
perimeter and s is one side. Since all
four sides of a square are equal, multiply one side by 4 to get the total
distance around the square.
The perimeter of a rectangle is P = 2l + 2w
where P is the perimeter, l is the length, and w is the
width. Since the opposite sides of a
rectangle are equal, double the length and double the width, then add to find
the total distance around the rectangle.
The perimeter of a triangle is P = a + b + c
where P equals the perimeter and a, b, and c are the
lengths of the three sides. To find the
perimeter, add the lengths of the three sides.
The circumference of a circle is the perimeter of
(or distance around) a circle. The
formula is C = πd where C is the circumference, pi or
π ≡ 3.14, and d is the diameter. The circumference is equal to approximately 3.14 times the
diameter. You could also use 22/7 for
π if the diameter or radius is given as a fraction or when the problem
would be easier to solve with 22/7.
Physics. In physics, work
occurs when a force succeeds in moving an object it acts upon. For example, a person who lifts a
fifty-pound weight on foot off the floor is performing work. For work to be performed, the movement of
the object must be in the same direction of the force—in this case
vertical. Work may be expressed as any
force unit times any distance unit and may be written as follows: W = F x D.
The amount of work done is the amount of force multiplied
by the distance moved. In the preceding
example, fifty foot-pounds of work is done when fifty pounds are lifted one
foot:
50 lb x 1 ft – 50 ft lbs.
Energy is required to do work. In the example above, muscular energy is illustrated in the form
of a body that is capable o f doing work.
Kinetic energy is energy possessed by a body in motion, such as a
moving train. Potential energy is
energy that is stored or is available for use by a body. For example, coal has potential energy that
is released only when it is burned. A
boulder positioned on a hilltop has potential energy; after it is pushed, its
potential energy becomes kinetic.
Power is the rate at which work is done. Power is generally measured in horsepower,
which is equal to 550 foot-pounds per second or 33,000 foot-pounds per minute.
The law of conservation of energy holds that all
the energy of the universe is conserved.
The capacity for energy to do work can be changed from one kind of
energy to another, but it cannot be lost.
This principle can be illustrated in the following example of energy
generated from a waterfall.
Water possesses potential energy. When water moves rapidly in a downward
motion, drawn by the pull of gravity, the potential energy is changed into kinetic
energy. Kinetic energy from a
waterfall can be harnessed to power a turbine, a rotary engine, creating rotational
energy. This rotational energy is
sufficient to generate electrical energy, which in turn is converted
into light and heat energy, which we use in our home. The initial potential energy was changed
into five different forms.
World History. Karl Marx
(1818-1883) was born in the Prussian Rhineland to middle-class parents and was
educated in German universities. At the
age of 23, he became an editor of a radical democratic newspaper. When the newspaper was suppressed by the
authorities, Marx moved to Paris where he met Friedrich Engels (1829-1895), son
of a wealthy German businessman who had an ownership interest in an English
textile firm. In 1847, at Engels’
request, Marx moved to England, and in 1848 the two published the Communist
Manifesto. Later Marx published a
critical analysis of mid-nineteenth century capitalism. These works contain the basic ideas of
Marxism.
Marxism asserts that the course of history is ultimately
determined by underlying economic conditions, that capitalists exploit workers
by retaining the surplus value of goods produced, that historical change is the
result of a struggle between social classes, and that the proletariat will
eventually overthrow the bourgeoisie.
According to Marx, the workers, or proletariat, will eventually become
so exploited that they will be conscious of their position and revolt. After overthrowing the government of the
capitalists, the workers will set up a state of their own as the remnants of
capitalism are dismantled. After
private property and the wage and profit system have been removed, the class
struggle will have ended and there will be no need for a state. Gradually, therefore, the state will wither
away.
Writing. When you
analyze something, you take it apart.
You examine the elements to understand better what makes up its
whole. In literature and the arts , the
skill of analysis is used to determine the author’s style, or choice of
words; style helps to create tone, or attitude toward the subject and
reader.
Another skill of analysis is distinguishing facts from
opinions and hypotheses. Facts can
be proved to be true by using one or more of the five senses. Newspapers and magazine articles are based
largely on facts. Opinions are
beliefs that may or may not be supported by facts. Opinions express feelings or ideas and are influenced greatly by
one’s background, values, and outlook on life.
For example, editorials and columns in newspapers generally present a
writer’s opinions along with the facts.
Hypotheses are educated guesses that are made to explain a
phenomenon or an event. Hypotheses may
be proved or disproved by the passage of time or the acquiring of additional
information.
Formulating a hypothesis is an important step in the scientific
method. The scientific method is a
system of investigation on which all scientific inquiry is based. Most science courses offer at least a bare
summary of the procedure. It can be
reduced to six steps:
1. Identify and state the problem.
2. Collect information.
3. Make a hypothesis.
4. Make a prediction on the basis of the hypothesis.
5. Make observations and perform experiments to test the
hypothesis.
6. Draw a conclusion.
Another skill of analysis is recognizing
organizational patterns. Textbooks
and reading passages in social studies and science are organized according to
certain patterns. Also, literary works
such as novels, short stories, plays, and forms of non-fiction are based on
organizational patterns. Three common
patterns used in writing are cause and effect, comparison and
contrast, and sequence, or time order. Organizational patterns can be the framework for entire books as
well as single paragraphs. Often, there
is a mixing of these three patterns within both single paragraphs and longer
selections. However, generally, you can
see a predominant pattern within paragraphs of longer selections.
*Selections in this handout were adapted from Contemporary’s
GED Short Course, Contemporary Books, 1997, and Arco’s Everything You
Need to Score High on SAT II Subject Tests, 3rd Ed., ed. Thomas
Martinson & Juliana Fazzone, Macmillan, 1998.